Cultural Studies: Frankfurt School

The Frankfurt School – The Institute for Social Research

The term 'Frankfurt School' refers to a group of scholars who worked in the Institute of Social Research at the University of Frankfurt, Germany.

Institute for Social Research (1923 - 1933)

• Felix Weil, a German Argentine Marxist, founded the Institute for Social Research at the university in 1923.
• Carl Grunberg, a Marxist economist, was the first director of the Institute.
• The main focus of the Institute was the study of the Labour Movement from a Marxist theoretical perspective.

Development of Critical Theory (1930 - 1950)

• Max Horkheimer, 2nd director of the institute, changed the focus of the institute.
• He, with the help of other critics, namely Adorno and Marcuse, developed 'Critical Theory,' which succeeded Grunberg's 'Marxist Theory.'
•  The critical theory aimed at critiquing the capitalist society and the role of capitalist ideology in shaping social relations.
• • Critical theory, a mixture of some elements from Freudian psychoanalysis and Marxist theory, aims at studying how capitalism fosters oppressive power structures.

Temporary and Unofficial Relocation, Geneva (1933 - 1934)

• The institute was closed when the Nazi party rose to power in 1933.
• Many of the members of the school went into exile.
• Some of the important theorists—Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Friedrich Pollock, and Karl August Wittfogel—relocated to Geneva and continued their research.
• However, their attempts to officially reopen the school were unsuccessful.

Columbia University, New York City (1934 - 1949)

• The Institute was officially relocated to Columbia University, New York, in 1934
• The institute expanded its intellectual network with NSSR, New York, and EHESS, France.
• The New School for Social Research (NSSR) was established by Charles A. Beard, John Dewey, and Thorstein Veblen, a group of university professors and researchers.
• NSSR focused on adult education and offered lectures and discussions without a degree prerequisite.
• École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales is a prestigious French institution of higher education and research, specialising in social sciences.

Return to Frankfurt  (1950-1968)

• The School returned to Frankfurt, with the directorship of Max Horkheimer, in 1950.
• The second-generation (since 1968) members are developing and widening the focus of the critical theory, introduced by the first generation, to suit the changing socio-cultural-political contexts.

Here is the list of the most important first-generation theorists:

• Maxhorkhiemer
• Theodor Adorno
• Walter Benjamin
• Erich Fromm
• Herbert Marcuse
• George Lukács
• Karl Korsch
• Friedrich Pollock
• Wilhelm Reich

Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), 
German philosopher and sociologist

• The second director of the Institute for Social Research (Frankfurt School) from 1930 to 1941 and again from 1950 to 1958.
• Transformed the institute into an interdisciplinary research hub that integrates Marxism with social sciences.
• In his 1937 essay "Traditional and Critical Theory," he presented his theory. 
• Its focus on critiquing social structures to promote transformation sets it apart from traditional theory, which only seeks to understand social structures.
• Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947, co-authored with Theodor Adorno), which is frequently criticised as being pessimistic, explores the contradictory relationship between the Enlightenment project and the emergence of totalitarianism and mass culture.
• Eclipse of Reason (1947) examines "instrumental reason," a way of thinking that emphasises efficiency and means-ends calculations at the expense of substantive values and ethical considerations.
• His concept of authoritarian personality refers to the specific personality set of traits that make one more susceptible to accepting strong authority figures, adhering rigidly to conventional values, and turning against outgroups or those perceived as different.

Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno (1903-1969), 
German philosopher, sociologist, musicologist, and critical theorist

• A close associate of Horkheimer
• Negative Dialectics (1966) critiques traditional philosophy.
• Aesthetic Theory (1970) explores the autonomy of art and its potential to critique society.
• Other important works: The Authoritarian Personality (1950, co-authored), Minima Moralia: Reflections from Damaged Life (1951), Prisms (1967)

Walter Benjamin (1892-1940)
German-Jewish philosopher, cultural critic, essayist, and literary theorist

• Drew elements of German idealism, Romanticism, Marxism, and Jewish mysticism into critical theory to explore how the modern urban environments and technological advancements affected the individual's idea of art and tradition.
• The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (1936) introduces the concept 'aura' to refer to the unique presence, authenticity, and historical context of an original work of art.
• The essay "The Task of the Translator" (1923) defines translation as a way to reveal the underlying kinship between languages, not a transfer of meaning.

Erich Fromm (1900-1980)

German-American social psychologist, psychoanalyst, 

sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist

• A prominent figure in the neo-Freudian movement
• Escape from Freedom (1941), or Fear of Freedom (UK), posits that excessive freedom that has come with modernity can lead to anxiety and a desire to escape it by submitting to authoritarianism and conforming to social norms (psychological roots of fascism).
• The Art of Loving (1956) differentiates immature love from mature love.
• To Have or To Be? (1976) contrasts two fundamental modes of existence – the having and the being – and advocates shifting from the having (desire to possess power) to the being (genuine and willing to share) 
• The Sane Society (1955) critiques the modern industrial society for fostering alienation, conformity, and a lack of genuine fulfilment.

Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979) 
German-American philosopher and social theorist

• Father of the New Left
• One-Dimensional Man (1964) argues that modern technology and mass culture have created "false needs" that turn man into a passive consumer, incapable of critical thought and revolutionary potential.
• Eros and Civilisation (1955) explains how the advanced industrial society imposes "surplus repression" beyond what is necessary for civilisation, and channels the libidinal energy into alienated labour (desire for money) 
• Concepts: Libidinal rationality,   Great Refusal, Repressive Tolerance, Repressive Desublimation, and new sensibility—explain how to reject the capitalists' oppressive mechanisms 

György Lukács (1885-1971) 
Hungarian Marxist philosopher and literary critic 

• History and Class Consciousness (1923) introduces the concept of reification to explain how capitalist societies objectify social relations.
• In this same book, he discusses the concepts of totality, class consciousness, and social reality.
• He argues that the proletariat can achieve the totality of social consciousness (an interconnected whole) through revolutionary praxis, which marks social transformation.
• The Theory of the Novel (1916) analyses the evolution of the socio-historical novel as a literary form.

Karl Korsch (1886–1961)
 German Marxist theorist 

• Marxism and Philosophy (1923) aims to return "vulgarised" Marxism to the dialectical and historical nature of its Hegelian philosophical roots before it loses its critical edge with socialism.
• Karl Marx (1938) offers an analysis of Marx's mature theory, contrasting the early philosophical writings on alienation with the later scientific analysis of commodity fetishism in Das Kapital (by Marx)
• An advocate of workers' councils (or soviets) as the true organs of socialism and revolutionary transformation claims that traditional trade unions and political parties have become bureaucratic and have joined the capitalist system, losing their emancipatory potential.

Friedrich Pollock (1894-1970) 
German social scientist and philosopher

• While Carl Grünberg was the inaugural director, Pollock stepped in as acting director from 1928 to 1930 and again in 1941.
• A central figure in the development of critical theory.
• The "éminence grise" of the Frankfurt School, a vital but sometimes overlooked figure
• Automation: Materials for the Evaluation of the Economic and Social Consequences (1956) posits that automation could potentially liberate workers from drudgery and cause social and economic changes.
• He argues that capitalism is being replaced by state capitalism due to the increase of the state in the economy.
• Essay, "State Capitalism: Its Possibilities and Limitations (1941) is noted for his theory of totalitarian state capitalism (e.g., Nazi Germany) and it's distinction from democratic state capitalism (under the state control)

Wilhelm Reich (1897-1957) 
Austrian-born psychoanalyst, psychiatrist, and medical doctor 

• Argued psychological defences manifest as physical "armour" in the body in his books, Character Analysis (1933) and The Function of the Orgasm (1927). 
• Emphasised the importance of "orgastic potency" – the ability to fully release sexual energy – for psychological health.
• The Mass Psychology of Fascism (1933) proposed that societal repression of sexuality was a major cause of neurosis and the rise of fascism. 
• Claimed to have observed a biological energy present in microorganisms, the atmosphere, and throughout the universe.
• He called it Orgone energy, a fundamental to life and health. His experiments of this theory involved "bions," which he described as transitional forms between non-living and living matter.
• He even invented devices, the orgone accumulator and cloudbusters, which he believed to influence weather patterns by affecting the flow of orgone energy in the atmosphere.
• The FDA considered his claims to be fraudulent and a danger to public health.
• Following his conviction, the FDA oversaw the destruction of his orgone accumulators and the burning of his books.             

Critique:

• Developed a new theory through an interdisciplinary approach that included sociology, philosophy, psychology, and cultural criticism.
• Provided insights into the role of capitalist ideologies in shaping the 'culture' of society.
• Marcuse's and Adorno's writings influenced 1960s social movements like the New Left and the Student Movement.
• Overly focused on the study of social culture, ignoring the need to analyse capitalist systems and political economy.
• An overly pessimistic attitude
• Notably detached from practical socio-political engagement
• It limited itself to Eurocentrism by ignoring non-Western social contexts and experiences.

Contribution:

• Despite being chastised for their pessimistic and detached social outlook, Frankfurt's first generation expanded on Marx's legacy, promoting it through new theories and ideas.
• Critical theory, the dialectical method, criticism of capitalist ideology, psychoanalytic and interdisciplinary approaches to social studies, emphasis on human emancipation, questioning authority, and such are their notable contributions to the field of cultural studies.