Literary Movements: 1. The Renaissance (in England)

The Renaissance Movement

The Renaissance, widely regarded as the first and most comprehensive literary movement, emerged in response to the devastation and systemic issues of the Middle Ages.

A brief understanding of the preceding periods is required to determine the origin of the movement.

PRECEDING PERIODS

• Ancient Sumerian Literature (circa 2600 BCE onwards)—Ex. The Epic of Gilgamesh
• Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Book of the Dead.
• Classical Greek and Roman Literature (c. 1200 BCE - 455 CE) - The Iliad, The Odyssey, the beginning of philosophy, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, and so on. 
• Fall of Rome (1st-5th centuries AD)
• The Middle Ages (5th -15th centuries AD)
• Renaissance (14th–17th centuries AD)
• (Note: Despite efforts, it is impossible to categorise literary periods and movements for comprehension due to their overlapping and shared historical timeline.)

THE EMERGENCE OF THE RENAISSANCE

Several social, economic, historical, political, and literary events combined to create the Renaissance, which lasted from the 14th to the 17th century.

The Renaissance was simply the result of the decline of the Middle Ages.

However, we must understand the following events to fully comprehend the context.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE'S DEFENSE

Several internal issues, including corruption, taxes, inflation, declining agriculture, the slave trade, and a faltering economy, contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Military overstretch, however, is the main cause, as the military relied on disloyal Germanic troops for defence and was unable to control the expanding borders.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE's FALL

• When Alaric's Visigoths attacked the Romans in 410 AD and overthrew Roman Emperor Augustulus, the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and the Romans left Britannia (England).
• On May 29, 1453, the Turks under Mehmed II overthrew the Eastern Roman Empire (Constantine, the emperor who refounded the city of Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople in 324 AD), also known as the Byzantine Empire (a term coined by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in the 16th century). Mehmed II named it Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire.
• The period between the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century AD and the Renaissance in the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries AD is known as the Middle Ages.

CHANGES IN CELTIC BRITAIN

The Roman Empire in England (1st-5th centuries AD).

• The Celtic people's attempts to defend their land from the Roman Conquest, such as the Boudican Revolt (c. 60 AD), were unsuccessful, and the land eventually fell under Roman rule.
• During the Roman occupation of Celtic Britain, Roman architecture, law, money, art, and other elements were incorporated, resulting in cultural Romanisation and Latinization.
• The founding of York and London as capital cities served as a catalyst for the island's urbanisation. The Roman Empire replaced Celtic paganism with Christianity as its official religion. Still, remnants of their folklore and myths persisted.

Departure of the Romans from England (5th Century AD)

• Consequently, the fall of the Roman Empire signified
•  The deterioration of urban areas
•  Infrastructural loss, unstable economy,
• Decline in agriculture
• Cultural shift 
• caused a void in the political landscape of England.

Arrival of the Anglo-Saxons (5th-9th Century AD)

• The Celtic leaders' invitation to the Anglo-Saxons to come into England to fight and defend the island against their rivals, the Picts and Scots, is obviously uncertain.
• Historians believe that Britain was invaded by Anglo-Saxon tribes, forcing the Celts to migrate westward (to Wales, Cornwall, and Scotland).
• This not only changed the Celts' political, linguistic, cultural, traditional, and social structures, but it also altered the Anglo-Saxon identity.
• They assimilate Christianity while imposing their festivals and customs on the Celts.
• They established their own social hierarchy (kings, lords, and freemen).
• Celtic dialects were replaced with Germanic dialects.
• One of their dialects, the East Midland Dialect, evolved into Old English.

The Middle Ages - in England (5th-15th century)

The Early Medieval Period (1066-1154) 

• witnessed the Norman conquest
• The establishment of feudalism, chivalry, and French as the language of the court (though Latin remained the language of the church and clergy)

High Medieval Period (1154-1307). 

• The changes that occurred during the Early Medieval Period peaked.
• The nobility rose to power and forced King John to sign the Magna Carta (June 15, 1215).
•  The charter reaffirmed their rights and set limits on royal power.
• Historically, this is regarded as a cornerstone of liberty and the start of the human rights movement.

Late Medieval Period (1307-1485)

• Marked the collapse of Britain with the beginning of the Great Famine (1315-1317) and the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)
• Recurrences of the plague, also known as the Black Death: the first outbreak in 1348–1350, the second outbreak in 1361–1362, and the subsequent outbreaks in the 14th century. [The final one was the Great Plague of London (1665-1666).]
• The decline of feudalism
• Mysticism and scepticism emerged as a result of the Great Schism and other factors.

THE RENAISSANCE (14th - 17th centuries)

The Context:

• To preserve the ancient knowledge system, Greek scholars left Constantinople with rare manuscripts and moved to neighbouring cities like Florence, Venice, Rome (a region in Central Italy that remained the centre of Catholicism even after the fall), Padua, Bologna, and Paris.
• Scholars like Basilios Bassarion and Manuel Chrysoloras were instrumental in bringing and conserving the classical texts back to Europe.
• European Monasteries and Libraries (St. Gall, in Switzerland) preserved and copied rare classical texts throughout the Middle Ages.
• Although the Conquest resulted in the loss or destruction of some manuscripts, the Ottoman Empire preserved many classical manuscripts in Byzantine libraries, and scholars studied and transmitted those classical texts.
• Some notable Muslim Scholars translated and wrote commentaries on the classical texts and influenced European thought. The names of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who wrote commentaries on Aristotle's works, are worth mentioning.
• The Renaissance began with the rediscovery and study of these dispersed manuscripts.

Emergence of Sub-Movements:

 

Humanism

• Humanism, a 14th-century sub-movement, emerged in Florence due to the societal and intellectual development with the advent of the Renaissance.
• The humanist scholars critiqued the dominant scholastic approach to learning.
• Wealthy Patrons like the Medici family supported the study of classical texts over the study of theology and dogma, emphasised by the humanists. 
• Establishment of schools and universities.

Important Figures:

• Dante Alighieri (1265-1321 CE) laid the groundwork for humanist thought.
• Petrarch (1304-1374), Father of Humanism
• Boccaccio (1313-1375)
• Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406)
• Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536)
• Sir Thomas More (1478 - 1535)
• Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)
• Michelangelo (1475-1564)
• Raphael (1483-1520)

Other movements:

• Individualism
• Mannerism
• Baroque
• Classicism
• Petrarchanism
• The Northern Renaissance
• Protestantism
• Reformation
• Theatrical movements - Elizabethan, Jacobean, and Restoration theatre

BEGINNING OF THE RENAISSANCE:

• The movement began in the universities and monasteries of Italy, with the rediscovery of old manuscripts  (in Latin and Greek on science, art and literature.
• Study of these texts in the schools and universities of England
• The Italian term 'rinascita' itself first appeared in Vasari's The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects (c. 1550)
• The French term 'renaissance' was employed to refer to this period only in the 1830s. 
• Aimed at revitalising European society by rediscovering and emulating the achievements of classical antiquity.
• Pushed Europe out of the 'Dark Ages' and towards a more enlightened and modern society.
• Began as a European cultural movement in the 14th century and reached England around the 15th century

PRE-RENAISSANCE PERIODS IN ENGLAND

• Old English (450- 1100)
• Middle English (1100 - 1500) / Chaucerian Era
• Named Writers: Cadmon, Marlow, Langland, Julian of Norwich, Gower

From the Medieval to the Renaissance

• Chaucer established a dialect in the language, Old English
• His medieval works served as a link between the medieval period and the Renaissance. 
• He used Classical texts as his literary source, and also translated a few.

The Arrival:

• The arrival of the Renaissance in England was a gradual process.
• The travellers and diplomats like John Tiptoft (1427-1470) introduced Italian humanism to England.d
• The merchants, like William Caxton (c. 1422-1491), brought back Italian literary and cultural influences and printing technology to England.nd
• Henry VII and VIII attracted Italian artists, musicians, and scholars, further promoting Italian Renaissance influences.

The Rulers: 

• The Tudors: Henry VII (1485-1509), Henry VIII (1509-47), Edward VI (1547-53), Mary I (1553-58), and Elizabeth I (1558 - 1603)
• The Stuart: James VI of Scotland (1603 - 25)

RENAISSANCE

Italian Renaissance

• Early Renaissance (1300s-1400s): Petrarch, Boccaccio, and early humanists
• High Renaissance (1480s-1520s): Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael
• Late Renaissance (1520s-1600s): Mannerism, continued artistic innovation

English Renaissance 

• Early Renaissance (1485-1550s): Influenced by the Italian Renaissance, Sir Thomas More
• Elizabethan Era (1558-1603): William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, the golden age of English literature
• Late Renaissance/Jacobean Era (1603-1625): Metaphysical Poetry, Jacobean drama

RENAISSANCE IN ENGLAND

Early Renaissance (1480 - 1550s):

• Marked by the beginning of the Tudor period.
• Early introduction of humanist ideas to England through scholars returning from Italy (e.g., William Grocyn, Thomas Linacre, John Colet, etc). 
• William Caxton establishes the printing press in England (1476).
• Thomas More (1478-1535), a writer and statesman, wrote Utopia, reflecting Renaissance ideals.
• Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542) introduced the sonnet form to England [the Italian Renaissance poetic form) by copying Petrarch]
• Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-1547), introduced Italian Renaissance poetic forms, such as blank verse, to England.
• Emergence of English Drama - mystery, miracle, morality cycles and interludes
• Roger Ascham, the father of English Prose and William Tyndale, the first translator of the Bible (into English) 

High Renaissance  (1558-1603):

• The term is typically used to refer to the period of Italian artistic achievements (roughly 1490s to 1527), characterised by artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael
• In England, the Elizabethan period can be named as the period of the High Renaissance.

Literary Achievements:

• Rise of Poetry: The sonnet,  Lyric Poetry, Narrative Poetry, Dramatic Blank Verse, etc.
• Rise of Public Theatre: The establishment of permanent public playhouses in London, such as The Theatre, The Curtain, The Rose, and later the Globe, created a thriving commercial theatre scene that catered to diverse audiences.
• Influence of Classical and Medieval Traditions: Playwrights drew inspiration from Roman tragedies (Seneca) and comedies (Plautus and Terence), as well as English medieval drama (Miracle and Morality plays).
• Tragedy: Elizabethan tragedy often focused on ambitious heroes with fatal flaws, exploring themes of fate, revenge, and the human condition. Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare are masters of this genre.
• Comedy: Comedies ranged from farcical and romantic to satirical, often featuring witty dialogue, disguises, and intricate plots.
• History Plays: A uniquely English genre that dramatised the lives of English monarchs and historical events, often serving patriotic purposes. Shakespeare is a prime example.
• Revenge Tragedy: Popularised by Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy, this genre features plots centred on elaborate schemes of revenge.
• University Wits: A group of educated playwrights brought classical learning and literary sophistication to the popular stage, paving the way for later playwrights like Shakespeare and Jonson.
• Growing Importance of English Prose: Prose writing also saw significant developments (facilitated by the availability of cheaper printing) 
• Early Novels and Romances: The period saw the emergence of prose romances, often lengthy and complex narratives featuring adventurous plots and idealised characters. Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia is a notable example of a pastoral romance.
• Essays: Francis Bacon emerged as a significant essayist, known for his concise and insightful observations on various aspects of life and society.
• Literary Criticism: Works exploring the theory and practice of literature began to appear, such as Sir Philip Sidney's The Defence of Poesy.
• Translations: The translation of classical and continental works into English played a crucial role in enriching the language and introducing new ideas and literary styles.
• Pamphlets and Treatises: Prose was also used for religious and political debates, as well as for disseminating information and opinions on a wide range of topics.
• "Euphuism": John Lyly's prose works, particularly Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit, popularised a highly ornate and artificial style characterised by balanced sentences, alliteration, and classical allusions. While influential for a time, this style was later satirised.

Late Renaissance (1603-1660)

• Spanning roughly from the Jacobean era (1603-1625) through the Caroline period (1625-1649) and into the Interregnum (1649-1660), witnessed a fascinating evolution of literary trends,
• Playwrights like John Webster (The Duchess of Malfi, The White Devil), John Ford ('Tis Pity She's a Whore), and Cyril Tourneur (The Revenger's Tragedy) continued the tradition of tragedy but often with a darker, more cynical, and morally ambiguous tone than their Elizabethan predecessors. 
• Development of Tragicomedy: Playwrights like Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher popularised tragicomedy, plays that featured serious themes and near-tragic events but ultimately had a happy resolution. 
• City Comedy: Ben Jonson continued his influence with satirical comedies focusing on the manners and follies of London life, often employing the "comedy of humours."
• The Decline of Public Theatre (Temporarily): The turbulent political climate leading up to the Civil War, coupled with Puritan opposition, led to the eventual closure of the public theatres in 1642.
• The Rise of Metaphysical Poetry: This was a dominant poetic movement characterised by Intellectual Wit: A playful and often startling use of paradoxes, puns, and conceits (extended, elaborate metaphors), Complex Imagery: Argumentative Structure: Poems often unfold as a logical or rhetorical argument, Focus on Intense Feeling. 
• Cavalier Poetry: often associated with the court of Charles I, wrote elegant, polished, and lighthearted verse. 
• The Essay: Francis Bacon continued to develop the essay form, offering concise and insightful reflections on a wide range of topics.
• Religious and Political Treatises: The works of writers like John Milton (especially in the Interregnum) became increasingly politically engaged.
• Biographies and Histories: There was a growing interest in historical writing and biography.
• Some prose romances and longer narratives marked the early forms of novel development.
• The King James Bible (1611): This monumental translation had a profound and lasting impact on the English language, shaping its vocabulary, syntax, and literary style for centuries to come.
• This period is characterised by Transition and Experimentation, Increased Intellectualism and Complexity, Growing Political Awareness, Shifting Religious Landscape, Self-Examination and Scepticism, Ornamentation and Wit, etc.

Important Authors:

• John Skeleton (1460-1529) 
• Sir Thomas More (1478-1535)
• Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536)
• Thomas Elyot (1490-1546)
• William Tyndale (c. 1494-1536)
• Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542)
• Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-1547)
•  Roger Ascham (c. 1515-1568)
• George Gascoigne (c. 1535-1577)
• Edmund Spenser (c. 1552-1599)
• Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586)
• Sir Walter Raleigh (1554-1618)
• John Lyly (1554-1606)
• George Peele (1556-1596)
• Thomas Kyd (1558- 1594)
• Thomas Lodge (1558-1625)
• Robert Greene (1558-1592)
• George Chapman (1560-1634)
• Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
• Samuel Daniel (1562-1619)
• Michael Dryton (1563-1631)
• Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)
• William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
• Thomas Campion (1567-1619)
• John Davies (1569-1626)
• John Donne (1572-1631)
• Ben Jonson (1572-1637)
• Thomas Dekker (1572-1632)
• Thomas Heywood (1573-1641)
• Joseph Hall (1574-1656)
• Cyril Tourneur (c. 1575-1626)
• John Marston (1576-1634)
• Robert Burton (1577-1640)
• John Fletcher (1579-1625)
• John Webster (c. 1580-c. 1634)
• Thomas Middleton (1580-1627)
• Phineas Fletcher (1582-1650)
• Philip Messinger (1583-1640)
• Francis Beaumont (c. 1584-1616)
• John Ford (1586-c. 1639)
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
• Robert Herrick (1591-1674)
• Izaak Walton (1593-1683)
• George Herbert (1593-1633)
• Thomas Carew (1594-1640)
• James Shirley (1596-1666)
• Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682)
• Edmund Waller (1606-1687)
• John Milton (1608-1674)
• John Suckling (1609 - 1641)
• Richard Crashaw (1612-1649)
• Richard Lovelace (1618-1658)
• Abraham Cowley (1618-1667)
• Andrew Marvell (1621-1678)
• Henry Vaughan (1621-1695)
• John Dryden (1631-1700)